Foundation
Instructional Design and Technology (IDT)
The scientific study and practice of learners, learning, instructors, and instruction to support the development, design, and facilitation of learning with hands-on and digital learning materials.
History of IDT
The evolution of Instructional Technology goes back to even before WWII. Instructional Technology was originally viewed as media. In the early 20th century, there was an increase in the use of visual materials in public schools. In the 1960s and 1970s, instructional technology was viewed more as a process and not so much media. In 1977, the definition became much longer and put more emphasis on systematic design process. In 1994, developments in cognitive and constructive learning theories began taking over behaviorism. At this time, instructional design became a theory and practice of 5 domains: design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation. Today, instructional design and technology is the term most in the profession are using. The term instructional technology will likely be ever changing as it continues to improve processes for learning.
Learning Theories
Behaviorism -- a theory that learning is developed through conditioning with both rewards and consequences for positive and negative behavior. This theory takes advantage of the fact that learners tend to seek rewards and avoid consequences. Learners feel extrinsic motivations to learn from a sage-on-the-stage style instructor. Best results in course requiring high memorization.
Cognitivism -- a learning theory that emphasizes the mental processes of learning, gaining of knowledge, and the mental frameworks and structures that support/expand the learning. Learners are motivated by curiosity and the instructor facilitates that curiosity by leading learners to knowledge. Best results in experience and process learning courses such as art and mechanics.
Constructivism -- a learning theory that implies that humans construct new information (meaning) with old or past experiences. Learners will make sense of the new information by constructing it and gaining their own understanding of that information. Learners are active learners with instruction that encourage teamwork and reflection. Best results in courses where students can contribute to course design/content.
Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999)
Bloom was a psychologist who studied how people learned. He developed a taxonomy that focused three domains: Cognitive, Affective, & Psychomotor.
Bloom's Taxonomies -- a learning theory that focuses three domains: Cognitive, Affective, & Psychomotor.
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The Cognitive Domain includes lower order thinking skills (LOTS) and higher order thinking skills (HOTS) arranged in ascending order like this: Know, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, Create.
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The Affective Domain includes an increasing level of emotional complexity and engagement from Receiving, Responding, Valuing, Organizing, and Characterization.
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The Psychomotor Domain includes physical abilities to interact with tools such as Perception, Set, Guided Response, Mechanism, Complex Overt Response, Adaptation, and Origination.
Jean Piaget
(1896-1980)
Piaget was a psychologist and was best known for his four stages of cognitive development. He was also a believer in people (children) start to construct understanding around them with what they already know. His cognitive development theory was the base of what today's "constructivism" is built on which is that human's learn new information (meaning) with old or past experiences.
Robert Gagné
(1916-2002)
Gagne was an educational psychologist known for both his Conditions of Learning and his instruction during WWII. During WWII, he worked developing and training Army Air Corps pilots. After WWII, he started working on a series of studies which then helped develop what he believe was good instruction. He believe people learned in different ways and that different conditions would bring about their learning.
Gagne's Nine Events of Learning -- a learning theory that described 9 events of instruction and corresponding cognitive processes:
1) Gain Attention; 2) Informing learners of objectives; 3) Stimulating recall of prior learning; 4) Presenting the stimulus; 5) Providing learning guidance; 6) Eliciting performance; 7) Providing feedback; 8) Assessing performance ; 9) Enhancing retention and transfer
Lev Vygotsky
(1896-1934)
Vygotsky was a Soviet psychologist known for his work on psychological development in children. Also know for the idea of "zone of proximal development" (ZPD), which is not what a student can do individually but what a student can accomplish with the help of others who are more knowledgeable.
References
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Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. O. (2014). The systematic design of instruction (9th ed.). Pearson Higher Ed.
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Piskurich, G. M. (2015). Rapid instructional design: Learning ID fast and right (3rd ed.). Wiley.
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Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (2009). Assessing the online learner: Resources and strategies for faculty. Jossey-Bass.
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Mertler, C. A. (2023). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators (6th ed.). SAGE Publications.